Empaths, Genetics and Them

[ItsAboutTime]

So much is said about the lack of empathy in people with BPD. More and more studies show a direct correlation between a chemical in our brain Oxytocin. It's a chemical that makes us feel all warm and fuzzy when we interact with others in a nurturing or bonding way; it has also been shown to help mice stay calm when under stress. And yes, it imparts the ability to feel empathy.

Empaths have the ability to scan another's psyche for thoughts and feelings or for past, present, and future life occurrences. Many empaths are unaware of how this actually works, and have long accepted that they were sensitive to others.

Empathy is a feeling of another's true emotions to a point where an empath can relate to that person by sensing true feelings that run deeper than those portrayed on the surface. People commonly put on a show of expression. This is a learned trait of hiding authentic expression in an increasingly demanding society.

An empath can sense the truth behind the cover and will act compassionately to help that person express him/herself, thus making them feel at ease and not so desperately alone.

Empathy is Inherited

Empathy is genetic, inherent in our DNA, and passed from generation to generation. Without the DNA being passed genetically there is an inability to read and understand people and be in-tune with or resonate with others.

Being 'empaths', does it make anyone feel better knowing that their lack of empathy isn't their fault and they had no control over that emotion from their inception?

[diotima]

I disagree that empathy is genetic. Humans do not develop empathy without proper parenting early on. If you hang around some very young children, you will see a pre-empathy stage. BPDs did not get adequate caregiving despite whatever biological predisposition they might have had. There was a mismatch between the infant and the parent. The caregiver did not cue into her infant's needs. Very often the mother is a BPD too and didn't know how to cope with this particular infant, who may have been more sensitive and needed a certain kind of attunement. This is pretty well born out in the literature that I have read. Genes do not determine behavior; genes can be expressed or not. My ex is an expert in this area btw (about genes and what they can and cannot do). 

Diotima

[Lizzie]

My understanding, is that many traits (including empathy) are developed by the interaction of nature(genetics) and nurture (environment).  It would make sense that some people are born with an innate potential for a range of more or less empathetic natures, and that depending on the complex interaction of their genes and the environment their ability to empathize will develop somewhere in a range that is predetermined by their genetic code.  Genes do determine behavior, but it is more complicated then simply saying genes determine behavior.  There are numerous genes that interact with each other and also the environment(which is made up of a lot of people, places and things).  Some genes get switched on and others never do.  It's complex and way over my general knowledge. 

I don't think that it's certain that BPDs do or don't have the ability to empathize.  Personally, I lean toward them being low and poor empathizers.  Some of them might be better empathizers than others, but there does seem to be a common theme many of them lacking empathy and that's been my personal experience.  With my personal thoughts that they tend to be sucky at empathizing, No it doesn't make me feel any better that perhaps it isn't their fault.

Once you become toxic and destructive, harming others, you are responsibility for the damage inflicted on others.   ASPDs, NPDs, child molesters, etc. also can't help what they are and also show abnormal brain scans, also have histories of abuse, etc. and for some reason they don't ellicit great sympathy and pity that BPDs seem to get from a lot of people. Although, all of those types are also good at getting sympathy as a means of manipulating people, just like BPDs.  Honestly, I find them all repulsive, but I'm working on finding more compassion for everyone, including these losers ;p

[Lizzie]

Very often the mother is a BPD too and didn't know how to cope with this particular infant, who may have been more sensitive and needed a certain kind of attunement.

If there are a high percentage of pwBPD who have parents with BPD, that could just as much point to a genetic link to BPD traits, possibly lack of empathy being part of it. 

[Willy]

I strongly believe human behavior is the outcome of 50% genes and 50% environment. I also strongly believe people with a PD are fully responsible for their actions and should be held accountable.

I do believe, however, that the frequent drug use of pwBPD also has to do with their chemical inbalance.

[Sofie]

I also disagree that empathy is genetic - and I don't think BPD is either. I don't discount that there may be genetical and biological factors at play, but I don't think it should be over-looked that there's a very strong correlation between the development of BPD and/or lack of empathy and childhood trauma. In fact, I've never heard of a person with BPD who had a "normal" childhood.

My ex-pwBPD grew up under such abusive circumstances that I believe anyone, including myself, would have suffered permanent psychological damage from them - there was nobody there to show her what love was, what care was, what being responsible was, what being emphatic meant. How was she supposed to learn?

As I said, I recognize that there may be genetical components at play as well, but I believe that the development of empathy can be seriously stunted if not growing up in loving and caring surroundings, and I see BPD and the "disturbed" empathy, which I believe to be part of the disease, as being much more about arrested development than anything else.

I'm not saying any of this to excuse the actions of people with BPD, but I do think that merely looking for the magical answer in genes could cause us to overlook the immense impact and responsibility that family and other caregivers have for the psychological development of the children in their care.

[TheSomberlain]

Behavior is genetically linked from personality to innate behaviors. There are plenty of caring parents who offer plenty of support on these forums. Anyone who says that BPD stems from poor parenting is one click away from being shown otherwise. Often BPD children have poor childhoods because they are raised by BPD parents. I've seen it first hand. All three generations in one room. Others have offered anecdotal information based on observation just as I have given. However, there is plenty of anecdotal evidence that you can acquire on this very website to question it.

To say that genetics plays no part on behavior is the same to say genetics plays no part on eye color. I don't know how versed any of you are on genetics. Even temperament can be linked to a single gene. For example, the D4DR gene housed on chromosome 11 is the novelty seeking gene which influences behavior. The D4DR gene affects the neurotransmitter dopamine. This in turn controls excitement levels.

It has been shown that the left amygdala in BPD patients is overactive. Just as individuals with psychopathy have amygdala dysfunction.

"The amygdala is involved in aversive conditioning and instrumental learning (LeDoux, 1998). It is also involved in the response to fearful and sad facial expressions (Blair et al, 1999). The amygdala is thus involved in all the processes that, when impaired, give rise to the functional impairments shown by individuals with psychopathy. It is therefore suggested that amygdala dysfunction is one of the core neural systems implicated in the pathology of psychopathy (Patrick, 1994; Blair et al, 1999)."

Amygdala activity can be just as inherited as dopamine regulators.

Mental illness, I believe, is at least inherited. Genes are affected by our environment. Some lay dormant until interactions in the environment cause them to be expressed. Allergies are a good example. One can never know they're allergic to peanuts without ever having them. Lets not forget genes can be mutated or lay dormant throughout one's life. I.e. not all parents on these forums has BPD but may have passed the gene and/or a child's gene may have be slightly altered. Dr. Kreisman also argues a genetic component to BPD.

[Ace]

My wife's mom is a definate possible BPD, at least she was emotionally abusive, but my wife's (half) sister there is no doubt in my mind she is BPD, same relationship issues, has sex with married men, has a kid with a married man, always finds things wrong with the guys she dates, finds losers to date since she can easily abandon them.  It came out when my wife's father passed away in March that he had sexually abused my wife's (half) sister.  It then came out that some of his daughters from his previous marriage claim the same thing.  My wife has never told me he abused her, but who knows.  Dysfunction breeds dysfunction.  It all comes down to probabilities.  It is more likely to become BPD if one of your parents is BPD.  If not, then it is less likely, but still possible.

[Finallyfree123]

I don't think empathy itself is genetic. I think the ability to empathize is genetic.

Then it's up to the parents to teach that trait to their child so it can develop in a healthy way.

Same for BPD- I'm sure the pre-dispostion can be there if 1 or both parents have it. But I wonder if a child with BPD parents was raised by emotionally healthy parents would that child develop BPD? I highly doubt it.

[ItsAboutTime]

It's likely that for some individuals, the genetic risk factors for BPD are so strong that the development of BPD is not preventable. For these individuals, even in a nurturing childhood environment, BPD will develop. However, research suggests that this is fairly uncommon. 

While nothing can be done about genes, it is possible to alter the childhood environment to reduce an individual's risk of having BPD. For example, there is evidence that childhood maltreatment or early separation from caregivers may increase risk for BPD, so creating a nurturing environment and making every effort to keep a child bonded to at least one supportive caregiver is critical.

[diotima]

I didn't say genes have no effect on behavior. I said that some people may be more predisposed toward BPD. That said, brain maturation is dependent on interaction with a caregiver. An expert in this area is Allan Schore. His two books are Affect Regulation and the Origins of the Self and Affect Dysregulation and the Disorders of the Self--meticulous documentation from an array of neurobiologists, psychiatrists, and psychoanalysts. I also didn't say "poor parenting." That is too simple. I said "misattunement." Now in the case of my ex, his mother was BPD. A parent doesn't have to be BPD to not be able to attune to an infant that would be predisposed to a PD.

Diotima

[TheSomberlain]

But I wonder if a child with BPD parents was raised by emotionally healthy parents would that child develop BPD? I highly doubt it.

Why?

[Ace]

I think the reasoning is that the healthy parents would teach the kid to trust and how to function healthy in relationships regardless of the genes that kid may have.  I tend to agree to some extent. 

Another thing to consider is the difference between low and high functioning BPD's. Is this a combination of less/more dysfunction while they were growing up and possibly better/worse genetic makeup and predisposition to BPD?

[Finallyfree123]

But I wonder if a child with BPD parents was raised by emotionally healthy parents would that child develop BPD? I highly doubt it.

Why?

I'm not saying it can't develop, but I think that if you remove the main causes:

Childhood abuse. Many people with the disorder report being sexually or physically abused during childhood. Neglect. Some people with the disorder describe severe deprivation, neglect and abandonment during childhood.

Then add the healthy modeling the brains needs to develop that those emotional systems will form healthy patterns in most cases.

Almost 90% of the brains development is done within the first 5 years of life. This means the brain is most malleable and formative during these early years.

Most of the brain's cells are formed before birth, but most of the connections among cells are made during infancy and early childhood.

Early experience and interaction with the environment are most critical in a child's brain development.

[diotima]

 A little more: affect regulation is necessary for a stable sense of self and dependent on brain maturation, specifically during the preverbal dyadic stages. If there is misattunement between the caregiver and the infant, proper affect regulation does not occur. This stage has to be more or less successfully negotiated in order for trust and empathy to happen. During this preverbal stage the child has to learn to be able to evoke affectively an image of the caregiver in his/her absence as a means of self-soothing. This in turn is correlated with certain right brain development involved in affect regulation. No (or little capacity for) affect regulation=no (or little) trust and no (or little) later capacity to develop empathy for others. This is based primarily on Schore's book Affect Regulation and the Origins of the Self.

Diotima

[diotima]

Brandrew,

Yes, that sounds about right. One thing I would add is that the brain is way more plastic than people used to think and so reprogramming can occur. Takes a lot of work, e.g., DBT and Schema therapy and certain kinds of transference therapy. But, yes, a whole lot of stuff happens in those early years that sets the stage--or in the case of BPD, doesn't set the stage for being able to self-regulate. What a mess!

Diotima

[ItsAboutTime]

If a parent is aware that their child will be born with genetic markers for BPD due to the fact that either they are diagnosed BPD or have a first-degree relative that has been diagnosed BPD, then it would be crucial that the parent provide an environment that will reduce the risk of their child having BPD.

Unfortunately most BPDs are not even diagnosed, so a parent or a relative with BPD would not even be aware of the genetic predisposition to it. 

[diotima]

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18439623 According to this study (and one other I found) there is no way as yet to correlate genetic predisposition to BPD.

It's a real mystery exactly what the predisposition is.

Diotima

[Lizzie]

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18439623 According to this study (and one other I found) there is no way as yet to correlate genetic predisposition to BPD.

It's a real mystery exactly what the predisposition is.

Diotima

Sorry, I interpret the findings on this study a bit differently.  It just says "The aim of the present study was to test for associations between SCN9A gene variants and BPD as well as BPD-related phenotypes."  and "Although our results were largely negative, replication studies in an independent sample are warranted to follow up on the potential role of SCN9A gene variants in BPD and dissociative symptoms, paying special attention to a possible gender different etiology".  This is a study where they are seeking to correlate BPD with 1 specific genetic location.  :)oes anyone know how many genes there are in the human code, isn't it in the many thousands?  

There's another study on same site I glanced out that says-"Genetic and environmental factors lead to brain alterations that are the basis for specific presentations of the disorder, such as self-injurious and impulsive aggressive behavior."

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12397842

I doubt there is ever going to be a study that can link a single gene to the development of BPD b/c of the way genes interact with each other and the environment to result in disorders.  It's not going to be as simple as here is the gene that causes BPD.  Maybe, but seems unlikely.  Think of someone who is diabetic, there are different genes depending on ethnicity that increase risk for developing it.  Perhaps there are different genes that will correlate higher to certain characteristic of BPD such as impulsivity.  Perhaps there are different subsets of clusters of BPD symptoms that go along with certain genes.  And perhaps the genetic tendency toward higher or lower empathy can explain a lower ability to empathize in BPDs (in concert with their environment). 

I'm also hesitant to completely believe all stories of abuse by BPDs.  I'm sorry if that sounds cold.  Maybe it's my experience with a pwBPD who was a horrible bully while constantly claiming to be the victim.  I just don't have a lot of faith in self reports by pwBPD.  They seem to have a tendency to be abusive while claiming they are being abused.  Who is to say that their childhood self reports are often accurate.  This is not to discount that some are abused.  But a lot of people are abused as children and don't develop BPD.  I think that pwBPD cling to identities and that many find an identity in being the victim b/c of the attention and all the other stuff it gets them from those around them.  I recall a section in the book walking on eggshells about a support group for parents of BPDers where it's noted that many of the parents had been accused of abuse, and obviously were denying anything had happened.  I

[ItsAboutTime]

The study that you've referenced was done specifically on the SCN9A gene and what role that particular gene played in the inability to sense pain and whether or not there was an association between SCN9A gene variants and BPD as well as BPD-related phenotypes.


"Genes and genetic variations reported to be linked to BPD have also been studied for their reported association with suicide, aggressiveness and impulsiveness. Results: Genetic variations in serotonergic system-linked genes are the candidates most studied and most widely reported to be associated with BPD. Genes involved in the cathecolaminergic pathway such as the cathecol-o-metyl-transferase (COMT) or dopamine transporter (DAT1) genes have also been shown to be related with BPD. All these genes have generally shown inconsistent associations with BPD-related traits. Conclusions: Despite the low number of studies assessing the role of genetic markers on the genesis and development of this disorder, scientific evidence suggests that serotonin-related genes may be linked to BPD. Further effort and more in-depth studies of the relationship between serotoninergic and cathecholaminergic-related genes and BPD are needed. Moreover, other genes linked to aggression and impulsiveness should be taken into account."

Ref: ASEAN Journal of Psychiatry, Vol.11 (2): July – December 2010.

www.aseanjournalofpsychiatry.org/pdf/ASEAN_110203.pdf

[diotima]

Interesting... .then the question would be about the role of the environment in expression of genetic (or any) predisposition given the massive amount of information about caregiver role in learning affect regulation.

Diotima

[ItsAboutTime]

Whether there was a nurturing environment in childhood, drug or alcohol use as an adult. All are contributing factors. How many have xBPD's that have a drug or alcohol problem?

Genes, heredity, environment, friends, drugs, alcohol. There's many combinations that create monsters.

[Ace]

I thought drugs and alcohol were coping mechanisms for those with BPD.  My wife does not do drugs and has done them maybe once in her life and she doesn't drink more than a few drinks a year.  But she does eat as a coping mechanism many times binge eating.  She has told me on before that she wants to eat herself to death since she doesn't have the guts to kill herself.  Many with BPD are diagnosed depressed, such as my wife.  I don't think it should come as a surprise that many people who are in fact just depressed, turn to drinking and drugs for self medication.  I think those with BPD are so unhappy that they will turn to an addiction for relief.  My wife's drug of choice is food.  It is the lack of self soothing I think that drives them to the addiction.

Seeing my wife's family, there is no doubt in my mind that it is either genetic or bad parenting or some combination of the two... .no doubt. 

[2010]

BPD is not a chemical imbalance in the brain at birth. Please, please, please stay away from studies like these that link Big Pharma and sales of medication to control a personality disorder. While medication is the lender of last resort for suicidal impulses -these studies are suggestions for drugging the emotions to stabilize a suicidal patient.  Big Pharma writes these up as suggestions for drugging the emotions.  Drugging is the last resort after all other efforts have failed.

Borderline is not a chemistry issue- it is a developmental arrest. Babies are not born with BPD, their brains are not imbalanced- but they experience fear as the outcome of a failure to separate/individuate.  All psychologically healthy humans become self sufficient at the age of autonomy (18-36 months.) That's the time we realize that Mother is not a part of us- and we can walk into another room without fear that she will be gone when we return. If Mother does leave us or never lets us wander to the other room- there is developmental arrest.

Borderline is the fear of annihilation (whether leaving the room and being killed or never being allowed to leave the room and being subjugated) and abandonment (if I leave the room will Mother still be there when I return?) This fear keeps Borderlines in a heightened sense of annihilation/abandonment anxiety and consequently they cling to people in order to stop the insufferable abandonment depression and separation anxiety that is/was necessary for *becoming whole*

Because Borderlines do not suffer the depression of becoming separate and whole, they remain as part time selves; good when they are valued and bad when the attachment "withdraws."  This is an attachment disorder that swings wildly back and forth due to distorted perceptions (hence the Border name because its on the fence between neurosis and psychosis) of attachments. All of this is re-lived over and over again in a repetitious compulsion to re-work that failure to "be."

Borderline goes beyond neurotic and becomes maladaptive. If the separation anxiety is never achieved, the abandonment depression never felt, the "self" personality can never emerge with free will to act with self determination.

It is important to note almost all humans are born neurotic, (an amount of neurosis is a good thing.) Neurosis keeps you from getting too close to the ledge and protects you from impulsive regret. Too much or too little and it becomes a psychosis, which is a maladaptive perception.

For the most part, Borderlines have suffered intense enmeshment in childhood- either from an overbearing, subsuming parent or a neglectful one. There doesn't have to be overt child abuse, there can also be covert abuse. Parents who do not allow their children to grow up are abusive. (To love too much is also abuse, as it objectifies a child and never allows a child to leave.) For these reasons, most Borderlines are emotionally deprived of "self" and therefore they may try the only way out of this predicament by testing the attachment bond with entitlement. This starts out healthy at first and then becomes compulsive and in many ways appears like narcissism. Frustration tolerance is low and impulse control is almost non-existent. These counterattacks are the distorted beliefs that they are under someone else's power and not their own.  Defectiveness and subjugation are internal conflicts that utilize "other" dependent part time players in order to feel temporarily "whole."

A Borderline personality is a part time self. Borderline is a behavior that seeks to make a whole person by using another person to attach to. Hope this makes sense.

[eeyore]

thank you 2010 I found that helpful.

[ItsAboutTime]

*The evidence of benefit for antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, and omega-3 fatty acids is weak. Antidepressants, antipsychotics and mood stabilisers (such as lithium) are regularly used however to treat co-morbid symptoms such as depression.

Dr. Gabbard Weds, Brown Foundation Chair of Psychoanalysis and Professor of Psychiatry at Baylor College of Medicine and director of the Baylor Psychiatry Clinic. A familiar speaker at APA meetings and one of the most recognized figures in American psychiatry, Gabbard has excelled in uniting psychodynamic and psychoanalytic insights with the most up-to-date findings in genetics and neurobiology.  www.pn.psychiatryonline.org/content/46/7/11.1.full

Stanley B, Siever LJ

Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY, USA. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19952075


I will never be convinced that BPD personalities are not caused in part to genetics and chemistry in addition to dysfunctional childhoods.

[TheSomberlain]

Borderline is not a chemistry issue- it is a developmental arrest. Babies are not born with BPD, their brains are not imbalanced- but they experience fear as the outcome of a failure to separate/individuate.  All psychologically healthy humans become self sufficient at the age of autonomy (18-36 months.)

So would you say there is no genetic predisposition to BPD? I just want to be clear because Kreisman in "I Hate You, Don't Leave Me" posits that many chromosomal loci are "activated or subdued" in conjunction to manifest BPD (for those talking about a single gene). Wouldn't said "failure to separate/individuate" be at least partially at the helms of genetic coding that may determine the effectiveness to do so? Even babies have different temperaments.

I would not argue that there is no environmental factor at play, but to say other mental illnesses can be readily inherited via genetic coding but not BPD seems suspect. Even statistically, those with a borderline parent are more likely to develop BPD, which suggests a genetic/neurobiological root. Otherwise it would develop sporadically (i.e. like most forms of cancer due to random mutation of cells).

It is not a chemical imbalance but rather genetic coding that creates the BPD temperament and thought process just as much as genes influence the thought processes of introverts/extroverts, feelers/thinkers, etc.

Furthermore, the study of genetics shows that not all genes are turned on (or expressed) once born. To say a baby is not "born" with BPD is a statement that even a lot of experts and geneticists would be apprehensive about saying. Genes turn on and turn off throughout the course of life. Hence the majority of mental illnesses manifesting in late teen/early adulthood stages.

Lastly, a babies brain may not be "imbalanced" as it is still maturing (and has a lot more of maturation). Same as saying a male child is not born with a beard but will be able to grow one once puberty begins. Would you say the brain scans that show an over-active left amygdala in those with BPD are a result purely of environmental factors or genetic coding that resulted in over-activity?

I'm not disagreeing with the environmental factors but I cannot and will not throw out the genetic component that has been shown to be linked to a lot more than we had thought in the past. I do not think it is purely environmental. The overbearing parents most likely had BPD themselves.

[2010]

IAT, the first article is about transference, not drugs. The second link is a research grant that is asking for money. In the transference article, the author states how important it is for clients to feel that they can trust the therapist.

"Such anomalies, in complex interaction with childhood trauma common among borderline patients, can result in the phenotypic behavior recognized as the symptoms of BPD: impulsive aggression, lack of affective control, and a profound mistrust born out of early disruption in the development of emotional attachment.

Today, transference-focused psychotherapy, developed by Kernberg and emphasizing interpretation of the transference as an agent of behavioral change, is one of several psychotherapies proven effective for BPD."

“In the 35 years I have been involved in psychiatry, we have gone from viewing these people as a chronically mentally ill subgroup to a group that has an eminently treatable condition with a relatively good prognosis,” Gabbard said. “Today, we can approach patients and families with considerable hopefulness.”

All he is saying is that fear creates anxiety and anxiety changes the neural pathways of the brain.  In much the same way that firefighters learn to suppress their limbic, Borderlines can too.

Medicating or "chemically lobotimizing" a client with an overactive limbic without teaching effective management skills to self soothe the fear is really a last ditch draconian measure.  Many Borderlines do fall into the chemical dependency trap because of "other-dependent" objectification. The "other-dependent" believes that medication will help with the Borderline distorted belief system. Unfortunately drugs just play right into the Borderline's defectiveness schema. Drugs determine that the Borderline is defective and in a one-down position. That's the *transference* that your link warns about reinforcing.

The belief system, (not the brain chemistry) needs to be tested in a trusting bond with the hopeful outcome of becoming a whole human without fearing annihilation or abandonment to the point of stopping the therapy because of the anxiety. No drugs necessary if done correctly and confrontation is controlled and growth is encouraged. Kernberg and Kohut had the same ideas about Borderline but different treatment methods- Kernberg having the most prolific mention in current publications because he is still alive.

[diotima]

2010: yes, it is an attachment disorder and the dyadic failure at these early stages affects brain development--for one, the parts of the brain responsible for affect regulation, which is necessary to make it through the detachment phase. Excellent description btw.

My ex's mother was BPD. Her other two children did not turn out to be BPD, although one of them is pretty messed up--he remained terribly enmeshed. My ex was the first born and having met his mother before she died, I honestly don't know how my ex survived at all other than by his formidable intelligence (diabolical). He has almost no ability to self-soothe. Babies do have different personalities, wherever that comes from, and mothers do better with some types than others. It could be that emotional regulation would have been an issue with my ex no matter who his mother was, but his mother couldn't rise the occasion. It also could be that she was worse with her first born.

Diotima

[TheSomberlain]

Babies do have different personalities, wherever that comes from, and mothers do better with some types than others.

Diotima

Temperaments. Don't change words. I don't condone wikipedia but it works for this purpose.

Alexander Thomas, Stella Chess, Herbert G. Birch, Margaret Hertzig and Sam Korn began the classic New York Longitudinal study in the early 1950s regarding infant temperament (Thomas, Chess & Birch, 1968). The study focused on how temperamental qualities influence adjustment throughout life. Chess, Thomas et al. rated young infants on nine temperament characteristics each of which, by itself, or with connection to another, affects how well a child fits in at school, with their friends, and at home. Behaviors for each one of these traits are on a continuum. If a child leans towards the high or low end of the scale, it could be a cause for concern. The specific behaviors are: activity level, regularity of sleeping and eating patterns, initial reaction, adaptability, intensity of emotion, mood, distractibility, persistence and attention span, and sensory sensitivity. Redundancies between the categories have been found and a reduced list is normally used by psychologists today.[3]Jerome Kagan and his colleagues have concentrated empirical research on a temperamental category termed "reactivity." Four-month-old infants who became "motorically aroused and distressed" to presentations of novel stimuli were termed highly reactive. Those who remained "motorically relaxed and did not cry or fret to the same set of unfamiliar events" were termed low reactive.[1] These high and low reactive infants were tested again at 14 and 21 months "in a variety of unfamiliar laboratory situations." Highly reactive infants were predominantly characterized by a profile of high fear to unfamiliar events, which Kagan termed inhibited. Contrastingly, low reactive children were minimally fearful to novel situations, and were characterized by an uninhibited profile (Kagan). However, when observed again at age 4.5, only a modest proportion of children maintained their expected profile due to mediating factors such as intervening family experiences. Those who remained highly inhibited or uninhibited after age 4.5 were at higher risk for developing anxiety and conduct disorders, respectively.[1]Kagan also used two additional classifications, one for infants who were inactive but cried frequently (distressed) and one for those who showed vigorous activity but little crying (aroused). Followed to age 14–17 years, these groups of children showed differing outcomes, including some differences in central nervous system activity. Teenagers who had been classed as high reactives when they were babies were more likely to be "subdued in unfamiliar situations, to report a dour mood and anxiety over the future, [and] to be more religious."[4]

Solomon Diamond described temperaments based upon characteristics found in the animal world: fearfulness, aggressiveness, affiliativeness, and impulsiveness. His work has been carried forward by Buss and Plomin, who developed two measures of temperament: The Colorado Child Temperament Inventory, which includes aspects of Thomas and Chess's schema, and the EAS Survey for Children.[3]H. Hill Goldsmith and Joseph Campos used emotional characteristics to define temperament, originally analyzing five emotional qualities: motor activity, anger, fearfulness, pleasure/joy, and interest/persistence, but later expanding to include other emotions. They developed several measures of temperament: Lab-TAB and TBAQ.[3]Other temperament systems include those based upon theories of adult temperament (e.g. Gray and Martin's Temperament Assessment Battery for Children), or adult personality (e.g.the Big Five personality traits).


... .

Most experts agree that temperament has a genetic and biological basis, although environmental factors and maturation modify the ways a child's personality is expressed.[11]

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperament